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Asa Journal 01/58

Atmospheric aerosol particles containing heavy metal contaminants deposit on the surface of plant leaves and the topsoil. Our aim was to reveal the pollution along an industrial–urban–rural gradient (IURG) in the central provinces of Thailand. Leaf samples from Ficus religiosa and Mimusops elengi were collected along with topsoil samples under the selected trees. Al, Ba, Ca, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, and Zn concentrations were determined by ICP-OES in soil and plant samples. Soils were not polluted according to the critical value; furthermore, the elemental composition did not differ among the sampling sites of the IURG. The rural site was also polluted due to heavy amounts of untreated wastewater of the adjacent Chao Phraya River. Bioaccumulation factors of Ba, Cu, and Mn was higher than 1, suggesting active accumulation of these elements in plant tissue. Our findings proved that the deposition of air pollutants and the resistance to air pollutants in the case of plant leaves were different and that humus materials of the soils had relevant role in bioaccumulation of Al, Ba, and Cu. At the same time, the geochemical background, the source of pollution, and the local plant species greatly influence the metal content of any given environmental compartment.

The proportion of urban population has been rapidly growing worldwide, and it is projected to increase in the future [1, 2]. Urban and industrial areas, as centers of human activities, are diverse sources of various pollutants [3]. The extensive economic growth and the intensified anthropogenic activities cause severe air pollution [4, 5]. Vegetation and soil are primary sinks for air pollution; the heavy metals translocated via atmospheric deposition negatively impact ecosystems [6]. The spillover effect between neighboring cities through certain linkages also increases the negative impact of air pollution [7].

Particulate matter (PM) is a typical pollutant in urban areas; it is usually rich in toxic organic components and heavy metals [8, 9]. Thus, PM pollution proposes serious health issues for the urban population [9]. As a result of human activities, the natural concentrations of heavy metals increase, and they can accumulate in the soil and the vegetation due to their non-biodegradable nature [10]. Unfortunately, atmospheric heavy metal emission (the amount of emitted pollutants at the source) and immission (measured concentration of pollutants in the atmosphere at a given location) levels are rarely monitored. In recent studies, elevated concentrations of several metals have been found in the soil around car repair shops and carwashes [11] and even in the soil of suburban vegetable gardens [12, 13].

Pdf) Landform Transformation On The Urban Fringe Of Bangkok: The Need To Review Land Use Planning Processes With Consideration Of The Flow Of Fill Materials To Developing Areas

Urban trees are used for indirect monitoring of PM and heavy metals in urban environments due to their distribution and cost-effectiveness [14]. The accumulation of air contaminants by plants is widely documented [15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. Trees are particularly efficient in trapping; thus, reducing airborne particles that can deposit in tree leaves’ stomatal openings and waxy cuticles [14]. Leaves accumulate heavy metals in high quantities [20]. Naturally, there is also a significant uptake via the root system, but the intensity of translocation through plant parts is dependent on the given metal and species. According to Feng et al. [6], heavy metals that deposit from the atmosphere have greater bioavailability than that in soil based on rice consumption.

Although several authors studied the atmospheric deposition regarding both the quantities and elemental composition of dust [21, 22, 23, 24, 25], the comparisons among cities are not widespread, and finding the differences in a multivariate approach is rare. It is vital to reveal how the geochemical background, the source of pollution, and the investigated plant species can influence the distribution and cross-connections of heavy metals in different environments.

Soil organic matter (SOM) influences many soil parameters such as availability of nutrients and water management positively, and it is primarily responsible for soil fertility [26]. SOM has direct effect on the mobility of heavy metals and can impede or facilitate their bioavailability depending on the level of organic matter humification (from fulvic acids to humin substances) and the formed chelates [27, 28]; thus, it generally plays an important role in metal retention [29]. However, both SOM content and humus quality are disturbed by human activities in urban soils, and as the level of disturbance changes in the urban environment, the role of natural and anthropogenic factors can vary. For example, Horváth et al. [30] found radial increase in soil organic matter content from the city center in Sopron city, Hungary. On the contrary, Oktaba et al. [31] observed that soils from the center of Pruszkóv Town in Poland contained more humic substances than those from the outskirts.

Thai Software Companies In Communicasia 2012

In this work, urban, industrial and rural sites were selected in the central provinces of Thailand. The aim was to assess the variability of heavy metal content in tree leaves and topsoil at the selected sites. The rapid urbanization and industrialization in Thailand, particularly in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region, has led to an increase in emissions [32]. The high density of motor vehicles has a large contribution to the local air pollution, which is amplified by the lack of proper urban planning [33]. We aimed to determine the level of pollution in industrial, urban, and rural areas and to reveal the potential of tree leaves as indicator of the environmental state. Thus, our hypotheses are the following: (i) There is higher heavy metal concentration in leaves samples from urban and industrial sites than from the rural; (ii) there is also higher heavy metal concentration in soil from urban and industrial sites than from rural, and (iii) tree leaves can reflect the heavy metal concentration of the environment.

There were three sampling areas (industrial, urban, and rural) in Thailand (Figure 1). The industrial area is in Wat Klong Phut-Sa near the Bangpa-in Industrial Estate in Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province. There are 109 factories in the Bangpa-in Industrial Estate area which is divided into five areas: Industrial Area, Free zone, Commercial and Residential area, Utility area and facilities, and Green area. The urban area was found at the Rangsit campus of Thammasat University, which was in Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani, 42 km North of Bangkok. The campus is divided into three areas: academic zone, housing zone (dormitories), and various sport facilities. The rural area was in Wat Pho Teang Nuea in Pho Taeng, Bang Sai, Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya. It is nearby the Chao Phraya River. Sacred fig (Ficus religiosa) and indian medlar (Mimusops elengi) were chosen because these species were found in all three sampling areas (industrial, urban, and rural). Three individual trees were chosen randomly from each species, and 15 leaves were collected from each tree at 1.5 m high. Thus, we collected 90 leaves per sampling sites. At each sampling site, six soil samples were collected at a depth of 0–20 cm along the urbanization gradient from each sampling area from the same micro-location near the selected trees.

After sample collection, leaves were washed with tap waters [34]. Because using distilled water may cause remarkable differences in the elemental concentration of leaves by the osmotic effects, tap water was used for washing. Leaf samples were dried for 24 h at 60 °C; then, the samples were homogenized and stored in plastic tubes until pre-treatment. Soil samples were dried for 24 h at 105 °C. From each soil sample, 50–100 g soil was dried at room temperature. After drying, stones, plant roots, and residues were removed with plastic tweezers. Samples were sieved in 2-mm plastic sieve. Then the samples were homogenized with agate mortar and stored in plastic tubes until pre-treatment. For elemental analysis, 0.2g of plant tissue and 0.2 g soil sample was digested using 5 mL 65% (m/m) nitric acid and 1 mL 30% (m/m) hydrogen-peroxide in a microwave digestion unit (Milestone 1200 Mega) for 5min in 300W and subsequently 5min in 600W. Digested samples were diluted to 25 mL with deionized water.